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The meaning of life is a concept that concerns the possible purpose and significance that may be attributed to human existence and/or one's personal life. It has been the subject of much philosophical, scientific and theological speculation, and there is a huge variety of views concerning this philosophical problem.[1][2][3][4]
It is often expressed in various related questions:[5]
- What is the meaning of life? [4][6][7][8][9][10]
- Why are we here? [1][11][12][13][14] What are we here for? [15]
- What is the origin of life? [16]
- What is the nature of life (and of reality itself)? [16][17]
- What is the purpose of, or in, (one's) life? [1][8][17][18][19]
- What is the significance of life? [19]
- What is meaningful or valuable in life? [20]
- What is the value of life? [21]
- What is the reason to live? [22] What are we living for? [15]
Some individuals, including logical positivists, have asked questions like "What does the question 'What is the meaning of life?' mean?"[23] and also questioned whether it is a meaningful question.[24] Others have considered the question "If there are no objective values, then is life meaningless?"[25] Existentialists hold that meaning can be created by oneself, rejecting the nihilist view. Some, notably Humanists, have aimed to develop an understanding of life that explains, regardless of how we came to be here, what we should do now that we are here.
In addition to the naturalistic hypotheses concerning the origin of life, consciousness and the universe offered by science, some philosophers and theologians posit a "watchmaker" or "intelligent designer" as the creator of the physical universe, mainly based on teleological and/or cosmological arguments. And others have considered the human need for some higher or supernatural ideal, for instance, in reference to Friedrich Nietzsche's postulation of the "death" of God, Martin Heidegger puts the problem as "If God as the suprasensory ground and goal of all reality is dead, if the suprasensory world of the Ideas has suffered the loss of its obligatory and above it its vitalizing and upbuilding power, then nothing more remains to which man can cling and by which he can orient himself."[26]
Religious answers to the question "What is the meaning of (my) life?" tend to include a certain moral demand[27] and to soothe the grief associated with death.[28] Mystical and spiritual traditions focus more on direct experience than religions generally do, the overall view is that life is an unfolding, an inner-awakening or a discovery and transforming of one's understanding and insight, and the ultimate goal of life is living a life in accordance with this spiritual insight, which can be summarized as understanding the meaning of life, all of life and reality itself.[29][7][30]
Western philosophy
- Further information: Western philosophy
Ancient philosophy
- Further information: Ancient philosophy
Platonic view
Plato was one of the earliest and most influential thinkers of Western philosophy, most famous for his realist stance regarding the existence of universals. In the Theory of Forms he asserts that universals do not exist in the way that ordinary physical objects exist, but rather with a sort of ghostly or heavenly mode of existence. He describes the Form of the Good in his dialogue, The Republic, speaking through the character of Socrates. The Idea of the Good is the child or offspring (ekgonos) of the Good, the ideal or perfect nature of goodness, and so an absolute measure of justice.
For Plato the meaning of life is to attain the highest form of knowledge, which is the Idea (or Form) of the Good. It is from the Idea which all things that are good and just gain their usefulness and value. Humans have a duty to pursue the good, but no one can hope to do this successfully without philosophical reasoning, which allows for true knowledge.
Aristotelian view
Aristotle, an apprentice of Plato, was another of the earliest and most influential philosophers. He argued that ethical knowledge is not certain knowledge (like metaphysics and epistemology) but is general knowledge. Because it is not a theoretical discipline, he thought a person had to study and practice in order to become 'good'. Thus if a person were to become virtuous, he could not simply study what virtue is, he had to actually do virtuous activities. In order to do this, Aristotle had to first establish what was virtuous. "Every skill and every inquiry, and similarly, every action and choice of action, is thought to have some good as its object. This is why the good has rightly been defined as the object of all endeavor." (NE 1.1) Everything was done with some goal in mind, and that goal is 'good'.
But if action A is done with the goal B, the goal B would also have a goal, goal C. Goal C would also have a goal and this pattern would continue until something stopped the infinite regress. Aristotle's solution is the Highest Good, which is desirable for its own sake. It is not desirable for the sake of some other good, and all other ‘goods’ desirable for its sake. This involves achieving eudaemonia, which is usually translated as "happiness" or alternatively "well-being,""flourishing," or "excellence."
"What is the highest good in all matters of action? To the name, there is almost complete agreement; for uneducated and educated alike call it happiness, and make happiness identical with the good life and successful living. They disagree, however, about the meaning of happiness." (NE 1.4)
Cynic view
The Cynics were a Hellenistic school of philosophy that argued that the purpose of life was to live a life of Virtue in agreement with Nature. Happiness depends on being self-sufficient and a master of mental attitude, and suffering is caused by false judgments of value, which cause negative emotions and a vicious character. This meant rejecting all conventional desires for wealth, power, health, and fame, and by living a life free from all possessions.[31][32]
The Cynics believed that as reasoning creatures, people could gain happiness by rigorous training and by living in a way which was natural for humans. They believed that the world belonged equally to everyone, and that suffering was caused by false judgments of what was valuable and by the worthless customs and conventions which surrounded society.
Cyrenaic view
Cyrenaicism was one of the earliest Socratic schools, founded by Aristippus of Cyrene. Emphasizing one side only of the Socratic teaching, Aristippus asserted that happiness is one of the ends of moral action, and maintained that pleasure was the supreme good, creating a hedonistic view. He found bodily gratifications to be more intense and preferable to mental pleasures. Cyrenaics also deny that we should defer immediate gratification for the sake of long-term gain. In these respects they differ from the Epicureans.[33][34]
Epicurean view
Epicurus believed that the greatest good was to seek modest pleasures in order to attain a state of tranquility and freedom from fear (ataraxia) through knowledge, friendship, and living a virtuous and temperate life. It also involves the absence of bodily pain (aponia) through knowledge of the workings of the world and the limits of our desires. The combination of these states is supposed to constitute happiness in its highest form. He lauded the enjoyment of simple pleasures, by which he meant abstaining from bodily desires, such as sex and appetites, verging on asceticism.
When we say...that pleasure is the end and aim, we do not mean the pleasures of the prodigal or the pleasures of sensuality, as we are understood to do by some through ignorance, prejudice or wilful misrepresentation. By pleasure we mean the absence of pain in the body and of trouble in the soul. It is not by an unbroken succession of drinking bouts and of revelry, not by sexual lust, nor the enjoyment of fish and other delicacies of a luxurious table, which produce a pleasant life; it is sober reasoning, searching out the grounds of every choice and avoidance, and banishing those beliefs through which the greatest tumults take possession of the soul.[35]
Epicureanism rejects immortality and mysticism; it believes in the soul, but suggests that the soul is as mortal as the body. Epicurus rejected any possibility of an afterlife, while still contending that one need not fear death, because "Death is nothing to us; for that which is dissolved, is without sensation, and that which lacks sensation is nothing to us."[36]
Stoic view
Stoicism teaches that to live according to reason and virtue is to live in harmony with the divine order of the universe, which entails the recognition of the universal reason (logos) and essential value of all people. For Stoics, the meaning of life is to be free of suffering through apatheia (απαθεια) (Greek) understood as being objective or having "clear judgment", rather than simple indifference.
Stoicism's prime directives are virtue, reason, and natural law, and they seek the development of self-control and fortitude as a means of overcoming destructive emotions. The Stoics do not seek to extinguish emotions, only to avoid emotional troubles by developing clear judgment and inner calm through diligent practice of logic, reflection, and concentration.
The foundation of Stoic ethics is that good lies in the state of the soul itself, and it is exemplified by wisdom and self-control. Stoicism involves improving the individual’s spiritual well-being: "Virtue consists in a will which is in agreement with Nature."[36] This principle also applies to the realm of interpersonal relationships; "to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy".[36]
19th century philosophy
- Further information: 19th century philosophy
Utilitarian view
The origins of Utilitarianism are often traced back as far as Epicurus, but as a specific school of thought it is generally credited to Jeremy Bentham.[37] Bentham found that "nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure." From this he derived the rule of utility, that the good is whatever brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people. Later, after realizing that the formulation recognized two different and potentially conflicting principles, he dropped the second part and talked simply about "the greatest happiness principle."
Jeremy Bentham's foremost proponent was James Mill, a significant philosopher in his day and the father of John Stuart Mill. The younger Mill was educated according to Bentham's principles, including transcribing and summarising much of his father's work whilst still in his teens."[38] In his famous short work, Utilitarianism, John Stuart Mill argued that cultural, intellectual, and spiritual pleasures are of greater value than mere physical pleasure, because the former would be valued more highly by competent judges than the latter. A competent judge, according to Mill, is anyone who has experienced both the lower pleasures and the higher.[39]
Nihilist view
Nihilism rejects claims to knowledge and truth, and explores the meaning of an existence without knowable truth. Rather than merely insisting that values are subjective or even warrantless, nihilism declares that nothing is of value. From a nihilist point of view, morals are valueless and only hold a place in society as false ideals created by various forces. Though nihilism tends toward defeatism, one can find strength and reason for celebration in the varied and unique human relationships it explores.
Friedrich Nietzsche characterized nihilism as emptying the world and especially human existence of meaning, purpose, comprehensible truth, or essential value. He summed up the process of nihilism as "the devaluing of the highest values".[40] He also saw nihilism as a natural result of the idea that God is dead, and insisted that it was something to be overcome, by calling the nihilist's life-negating values in question and return meaning to the Earth.[2]
Martin Heidegger described nihilism as the movement whereby Being is forgotten and is wholly transformed into value, or in other words, the reduction of being to exchange value.[40]
Pragmatist view
Pragmatism is a school of philosophy which originated in the United States in the late 1800s, concerned largely by the issue of truth. Pragmatists believe that it is only through struggling with the surrounding environment that theories and data acquired by intelligent organisms have significance. Consequences like utility and practicality as vital components of truth, but pragmatism does not hold that just anything that is useful or practical should be regarded as true, or just anything that helps us to survive in the short-term; pragmatists argue that what should be taken as true is that which most contributes to the most human good over the longest course. In practice this means that theoretical claims should be tied to verification practices — i.e., that one should be able to make predictions and test them − and that ultimately the needs of humankind should guide the path of human inquiry.
Pragmatic philosophers suggest that rather than a truth about life, we should seek a useful understanding of life. William James argued that truth could be made but not sought.[41][42] To a pragmatist, the meaning of an individual's life can be discovered only through experience and the purposes which cause you to value it.
20th century philosophy
- Further information: 20th century philosophy
Existentialist views
Existentialism is a philosophical movement that posits that individuals create the meaning and essence of their lives, as opposed to deities or authorities creating it for them. Although there are some common tendencies amongst "existentialist" thinkers, there are major differences and disagreements among them.[43] Emphasizing action, freedom, and decision as fundamental, existentialists oppose themselves to rationalism and positivism and instead look at where people find meaning. The rejection of reason as the source of meaning is a common theme of existentialist thought, as is the focus on the feelings of anxiety and dread that are felt in the face of radical freedom and the awareness of death. Some other themes are that humans define their own meaning in life and that existence precedes essence, which means that the essence or meaning of one's life can only arise after one has come into existence.
Søren Kierkegaard invented the term "leap of faith" and argued that life is full of absurdity and the individual must make his or her own values in an indifferent world. For Kierkegaard, an individual can have a meaningful life (or at least one free of despair and existential anxiety) if the individual relates the self in an unconditional commitment to something finite, and devotes his or her life to the commitment despite the inherent vulnerability of doing so.[44]
Arthur Schopenhauer offered a bleak answer to "What is the meaning of life?" by determining one's life as a reflection of one's will and the will (and thus life) as being an aimless, irrational, and painful drive. He saw salvation, deliverance, or escape from suffering in aesthetic contemplation, sympathy for others, and asceticism.[45][46]
Friedrich Nietzsche declared that life is worth living only if there are goals that inspire to live. Accordingly, nihilism —the claim that "all that happens is meaningless"— may be defined as goallessness. Nietzsche discredited asceticism, as it derived from the negation of our life in this world. He denied that values are objective facts and proclaimed that there are no rationally necessary, universally binding commitments: Our evaluations are interpretations, and not reflections of the world as it is in itself, and therefore all ideations take place from a particular perspective.[2] Nietzsche has also stated that the essential thing in life is the tremendous shaping, form-creating force, the will to power.[3]
Other influential existentialist thinkers include Fyodor Dostoevsky, Jean-Paul Sartre, Albert Camus, and Simone de Beauvoir.
Humanist views
- Further information: Humanism (life stance)
According to Humanism, the human race came to be by reproducing in a progression of unguided evolution as an integral part of nature, which is self-existing.[47][48] Knowledge does not come from supernatural sources, rather it flows from human observation, experimentation, and rational analysis preferably utilizing the scientific method: the nature of the universe is what we discern it to be.[47] As are "values and realities", which are determined "by means of intelligent inquiry"[47] and "are derived from human need and interest as tested by experience", that is, by critical intelligence.[49][50] "As far as we know, the total personality is [a function] of the biological organism transacting in a social and cultural context."[48]
Humanists believe that human purpose is determined by humans, completely without supernatural influence; it is human personality (in the broadest sense) that is the purpose of a human's life, and this humanism seeks to develop and fulfill:[47] "Humanism affirms our ability and responsibility to lead ethical lives of personal fulfillment that aspire to the greater good of humanity."[49] Humanists seek enlightened self-interest and the common good for all people. The happiness of the individual is inextricably linked to the well-being of humanity as a whole, in part because we are social animals which find meaning in relationships, and because cultural progress benefits everybody who lives in that culture.[48][49]
Posthumanism and transhumanism (sometimes used as synonyms) are extensions of humanistic values. Like humanism, they propose that we should seek the advancement of humanity and of all life to the greatest degree feasible, with an emphasis on reconciling the views of Renaissance humanism to correspond more closely to the 21st century's concepts of technoscientific knowledge. These views insist that all living things be granted the basic option to inquire after their own personal or social "meaning(s) of life" (including meanings that human beings are currently incompetent to comprehend) as much as it is physically possible to do so, and no less.[51] They insist that the meaning of life is necessarily indefinite and ambiguous, and should be left to the philosophical inclinations of the individual; however there is a moral imperative common to all intelligent agents to improve their lives.
Logical positivist view
Of the meaning of life, Ludwig Wittgenstein and the logical positivists said: expressed in language, the question is meaningless. This is because "meaning of x" is a term in life usually conveying something regarding the consequences of x, or the significance of x, or that which should be noted regarding x, etc. So when "life" is used as "x" in the term "meaning of x", the statement becomes recursive and therefore nonsensical, or would simply refer to the obvious fact that the condition of life is essential for having meaning (in life).
In other words, things in a person's life can have meaning (importance), but a meaning of life itself, i.e., apart from those things, cannot be discerned. In this context, a person's life is said to have meaning (significance to himself and others) in the form of the events throughout his life and the results of his life in terms of achievements, a legacy, family, etc. But to say that life itself has meaning is a misuse of language, since any note of significance or consequence is relevant only in life (to those living it), rendering the statement erroneous. Bertrand Russell, for example, wrote that although he found it impossible to believe that his distaste for torture was similar in nature to his distaste for broccoli, he nonetheless could find no satisfactory empirical method of proving this:[36]
When we try to be definite as to what we mean when we say that this or that is "the Good," we find ourselves involved in very great difficulties. Bentham's creed that pleasure is the Good roused furious opposition, and was said to be a pig's philosophy. Neither he nor his opponents could advance any argument. In a scientific question, evidence can be adduced on both sides, and in the end, one side is seen to have the better case — or, if this does not happen, the question is left undecided. But in a question as to whether this or that is the ultimate Good, there is no evidence either way; each disputant can only appeal to his own emotions, and employ such rhetorical devices as shall rouse similar emotions in others...Questions as to "values" — that is to say, as to what is good or bad on its own account, independently of its effects — lie outside the domain of science, as the defenders of religion emphatically assert. I think that in this they are right, but I draw the further conclusion, which they do not draw, that questions as to "values" lie wholly outside the domain of knowledge. That is to say, when we assert that this or that has "value," we are giving expression to our own emotions, not to a fact which would still be true if our personal feelings were different.[52]
Abrahamic religions
- Further information: Abrahamic religion
Jewish view
Judaism maintains a number of religious principles, the most important of which is the belief in a single, omniscient, omnipotent, omnibenevolent, transcendent God, who created the universe and continues to govern it. Traditional Judaism maintains that God established a covenant with the Jewish people at Mount Sinai, and revealed his laws and commandments to them in the form of the Torah. In Rabbinic Judaism, the Torah comprises both the written Torah (Pentateuch) and a tradition of oral law, much of it codified in later sacred writings.
Jews believe the purpose of life is to serve God[53] and to prepare for the world to come[54] "Olam Haba".[55] While Jewish thoughts are about elevating oneself in spirituality and connecting to God and trying to prepare for "Olam Haba", Jewish thought is to use this world, "Olam Hazeh," to help elevate ourself into the next.
Judaism regards life as a precious gift from God; precious not only because it is a gift from God, but because, for humans, there is a uniqueness attached to that gift. Of all the creatures on Earth, humans are created in the image of God. Our lives are sacred and precious because we carry within us the Divine Image, and with it, unlimited potential.[56]
Christian view
Christianity is a monotheistic[57] religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ as presented in the New Testament,[58] drawing many of their beliefs from the Holy Bible. Christians believe they are being tested and purified so that they may have a place of responsibility with Jesus in the afterlife.
They believe that loving God is the meaning of life, and in order to achieve this one would ask for forgiveness of sins and receive God into their heart. Christians believe in an eternal afterlife, and that one ascend to heaven only through the faith and love of Jesus Christ (Ephesians 2:8-9; Romans 6:23; John 3:16-21; John 3:36).
There is some disagreement on the subject of atonement and forgiveness. Catholics believe acts of penance, which can include service to others, are required to receive forgiveness of sins, especially for mortal sins. Protestants and evangelicals believe that actions in themselves do not impact salvation or the entry into heaven, but rather it is acceptance of Christ as saviour and repentance (turning away from) of sin that determines one's fate. This is not to say that one must be sinless, but that one must war against sin.
In the Westminster Shorter Catechism, the first question is "What is the chief end of man?", or in other words, 'What is man's main purpose?'. The answer, according to the Catechism is "Man's chief end is to glorify God and enjoy him forever." It goes on to explain that God requires of us to obey the moral law revealed to us, which proclaims that we must "love the Lord our God with all our heart, with all our soul, with all our strength, and with all our mind; and our neighbour as ourselves."[59]The Baltimore Catechism answers the question "Why did God make you?" by saying "God made me to know Him, to love Him, and to serve Him in this world, and to be happy with Him for ever in heaven."[60]
Jesus encouraged Christians to be overcomers and said "To him who overcomes, I will give the right to sit with me on my throne, just as I overcame and sat down with my Father on his throne. He who has an ear, let him hear what the Spirit says to the churches." (Rev 3:21-22)
The Bible states that it is God "in whom we live and move and have our being" (Acts 17:28), that to fear God is the beginning of wisdom, and to depart from evil is the beginning of understanding (Job 28:28) and that "In Christ Jesus are hidden all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge" (Colossians 2:3). The Bible also says "Let us hear the conclusion of the whole matter: Fear God, and keep his commandments: for this is the whole duty of man" (Ecclesiastes 12:13), and "Whether therefore ye eat, or drink, or whatsoever ye do, do all to the glory of God." (Corinthians 10:31)
Islamic view
In Islam the ultimate objective of man is to seek the pleasure of Allah by living in accordance with the Divine guidelines as stated in the Qur'an and the Tradition of the Prophet. The Qur'an states that all Muslims must believe in God, his revelations, his angels, his messengers, and in the "Day of Judgment".[61]
The Qur'an states that the whole purpose behind the creation of man was for glorifying and worshipping Allah:[62] "I only created jinn and man to worship Me" (Qur'an 51:56). Worshiping in Islam means to testify to the oneness of God in his lordship, names and attributes. Muslims believe life was created as a test, and how one performs determines whether your soul goes to Jannah (Heaven) or Jahannam (Hell).
The Five Pillars of Islam are five duties incumbent on every Muslim to perform. It is a concept taken from the Hadith collections, notably the work of Sahih Al-Bukhari and Sahih Muslim. The pillars are Shahadah (profession of faith), Salah (ritual prayer), Zakah (alms tax), Sawm (fasting during Ramadan), and Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca). Twelvers have five fundamental beliefs which relates to Aqidah.[63] These five practices are essential to Sunni Islam. Shi'a Muslims subscribe to eight ritual practices which substantially overlap with the Five Pillars.[64]
Some beliefs differ between particular sects. The Sunni concept of predestination is called divine decree,[65] while the Shi'a version is called divine justice. The esoteric Muslim view, generally held by Sufis, the universe exists only for God's pleasure, and creation works as a grand game,[66] with Allah as the greatest prize.[66]
Bahá'í view
The Bahá'í Faith, founded by Bahá'u'lláh, emphasizes the spiritual unity of all humankind.[67] According to Bahá'í teachings, religious history has unfolded through a series of God's messengers who brought teachings suited for the capacity of the people at their time, and whose fundamental purpose is the same.
The purpose of human life, say Bahá'ís, is spiritual growth. This is conceived almost as an organic process, like the development of a fetus, and continues after death. Neither a physical Heaven or Hell are present in the Bahá'í Faith. The Bahá'í teachings present "Heaven" and "Hell" to be states of spiritual nearness or remoteness to God, and that life continues in an afterlife through which the soul may progress infinitely through ever-more-exalted spiritual realms, eventually coming to stand before the Presence of God. The Bahá'í faith teaches that this process continues on in the spiritual afterlife, and not through a series of births and re-births as in reincarnation.[68][69][70]
Bahá'ís believe that while God's essence can never be fully fathomed, he can be understood through his "names and attributes." These are sometimes referred to as gems, and include such qualities as compassion, justice, knowledge, and wisdom. Education (especially of a spiritual nature) reveals the divine gems which God has placed within our souls.[71]
Dharmic religions and philosophy
- Further information: Dharma, Indian religions, and Indian philosophy
Hindu views
- Further information: Hinduism and Hindu philosophy
Hinduism is an extremely diverse religion. Although some tenets of the faith are accepted by most Hindus, scholars have found it difficult to identify any doctrines with universal acceptance among all denominations.[72] Most Hindus believe that the spirit or soul—the true "self" of every person, called the ātman—is eternal.[73] The purusharthas are the canonical four ends or aims of human life.[74][75][76] These goals are, from lowest to highest importance: Kāma (sensual pleasure or love), Artha (wealth), Dharma (righteousness or morality) and Moksha (liberation from the cycle of reincarnation)
According to the monistic/pantheistic theologies of Hinduism (such as the Advaita Vedanta school), the ātman is ultimately indistinct from Brahman, the supreme spirit. Brahman is described as "The One Without a Second;" hence these schools are called "non-dualist."[77] The goal of life according to the Advaita school is to realize that one's atman (soul) is identical to Brahman, the supreme soul.[78] The Upanishads state that whoever becomes fully aware of the ātman as the innermost core of one's own self, realises their identity with Brahman and thereby reaches Moksha (liberation or freedom)[73][79][80] The notion of lila (literally, "play") refers to the idea of the universe as a cosmic game, and meaning as a "play of significance".[81] This "play", manifested in the million-formed inexhaustible richness of beings and events, is what gives us the key to the meaning of life.[82]
Other Hindu schools, such as the dualist Dvaita Vedanta and other bhakti schools, understand Brahman as a Supreme Being who possesses personality. On these conceptions, the ātman is dependent on Brahman, and the meaning of life is to achieve Moksha through love towards God and on God's grace.[79]
Jain view
- Further information: Jainism and Jain philosophy
Jainism is a religion originating in ancient India, its ethical system promotes self-discipline above all else. Through following the ascetic teachings of Jina, a human achieves enlightenment (perfect knowledge). Jainism divides the universe into living and non-living beings. Only when the non-living become attached to the living does suffering result. Therefore, happiness is the result of self-conquest and freedom from external objects. The meaning of life may then be said to be to use of the physical body to achieve self-realization and bliss.[83]
Jains believe that every human is responsible for his or her actions and all living beings have an eternal soul, jīva. Jains believe all souls are equal because they all possess the potential of being liberated and attaining Moksha. The Jain view of karma is that every action, every word, every thought produces, besides its visible, an invisible, transcendental effect on the soul.
Jainism includes strict adherence to ahimsa (or ahinsā), a form of nonviolence that goes far beyond vegetarianism. Jains refuse food obtained with unnecessary cruelty. Many practice a lifestyle similar to Veganism due to the violence of modern dairy farms, and others exclude root vegetables from their diets in order to preserve the lives of the plants from which they eat.[84]
Buddhist views
One of the central views in Buddhism is a nondual worldview, in which subject and object are the same, and the sense of doer-ship is illusionary. On this account, the meaning of life is to become enlightened as to the nature and oneness of the universe. According to the scriptures, the Buddha taught that in life there exists Dukkha, which is in essence sorrow/suffering, that is caused by desire and it can be brought to cessation by following the Noble Eightfold Path.
This teaching is called the Catvāry Āryasatyāni (Pali: Cattāri Ariyasaccāni), or the "Four Noble Truths".
- There is suffering (duhkha)
- There is a cause of suffering — craving (trishna)
- There is the cessation of suffering (nirvana)
- There is a way leading to the cessation of suffering — the Noble Eightfold Path
Theravada Buddhism promotes the concept of Vibhajjavada (Pali), literally "Teaching of Analysis." This doctrine says that insight must come from the aspirant's experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead of by blind faith; however, the scriptures of the Theravadin tradition also emphasize heeding the advice of the wise, considering such advice and evaluation of one's own experiences to be the two tests by which practices should be judged. The Theravadin goal is liberation (or freedom) from suffering, according to the Four Noble Truths. This is attained in the achievement of Nibbana, or Unbinding which also ends the repeated cycle of birth, old age, sickness and death.
Mahayana Buddhist schools de-emphasize the traditional Theravada ideal of the release from individual Suffering (Dukkha) and attainment of Awakening (Nirvana). In Mahayana, the Buddha is seen as an eternal, immutable, inconceivable, omnipresent being. The fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine are based around the possibility of universal liberation from suffering for all beings, and the existence of the transcendent Buddha-nature, which is the eternal Buddha essence present, but hidden and unrecognised, in all living beings.
Sikh view
The monastic Sikh religion was founded by Guru Nanak Dev, the term "sikh" means student, which denotes that followers will lead their lives forever learning. This system of religious philosophy and expression has been traditionally known as the Gurmat (literally the counsel of the gurus) or the Sikh Dharma. The followers of Sikhism are ordained to follow the teachings of the ten Sikh gurus, or enlightened leaders, as well as the holy scripture entitled the Gurū Granth Sāhib, which includes selected works of many philosophers from diverse socio-economic and religious backgrounds.
The Sikh Gurus tell us that salvation can be obtained by following various spiritual paths. Therefore, Sikhs do not have a monopoly on salvation: "The Lord dwells in every heart, and every heart has its own way to reach Him."[85] Sikhs do not consider they have an "exclusive" right to salvation. Sikhs believe that all people are equally important before God.[86] Sikhs balance their moral and spiritual values with the quest for knowledge, and they aim to promote a life of peace and equality but also of positive action.[87]
A key distinctive feature of Sikhism is a non-anthropomorphic concept of God, to the extent that one can interpret God as the Universe itself (pantheism). Sikhism thus sees life as an opportunity to understand this God as well as to discover the divinity which lies in each individual. While a full understanding of God is beyond human beings,[88] Nanak described God as not wholly unknowable. God is omnipresent (sarav viāpak) in all creation and visible everywhere to the spiritually awakened. Nanak stressed that God must be seen from "the inward eye", or the "heart", of a human being: devotees must meditate to progress towards enlightenment. Nanak emphasized the revelation through meditation, as its rigorous application permits the existence of communication between God and human beings.[88]
According to Sikhism, every creature has a soul. In death, the soul passes from one body to another until final liberation. The journey of the soul is governed by the karma of the deeds and actions we perform during our lives, and depending on the goodness or wrongdoings committed by a person in their life they will either be rewarded or punished in their next life. As the spirit of God is found in all life and matter, a soul can be passed onto other life forms, such as plants and insects - not just human bodies. A person who has evolved to achieve spiritual perfection in his lifetimes attains salvation – union with God and liberation from rebirth in the material world.
East Asian religions and philosophy
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- Further information: East Asian religions
Taoist views
The Taoists cosmogony emphasizes the need for all sentient beings and all man to return to the primordial or to rejoin with the Oneness of the Universe by way of self-correction and self realization. It is the objective for all adherents to understand and be in tune with the ultimate truth.
Within the theology of Taoism, all man were originally a being called yuanling from Taiji and Tao, the meaning in life for the adherents is to realise the temporal nature of the existence, and all adherents are expected to practise, hone and conduct their mortal lives by way of Xiuzhen and Xiushen, as a preparation for the spiritual transcendence thereafter. "Only introspection can then help us to find our innermost reasons for living...the simple answer is here within ourselves."[89]
Shinto views
Shinto wants life to live, not to die. Shinto sees death as pollution and regards life as the realm where the divine spirit seeks to purify itself by rightful self-development. Shinto wants individual human life to be prolonged forever on earth as a victory of the divine spirit in preserving its objective personality in its highest forms. The presence of evil in the world, as conceived by Shinto, does not stultify the divine nature by imposing on divinity responsibility for being able to relieve human suffering while refusing to do so. The sufferings of life are the sufferings of the divine spirit in search of progress in the objective world.[28]
Confucian views
Confucianism recognizes human nature in accordance with the need for discipline and education. Because mankind is driven by both positive and negative influences, Confucianists see a goal in achieving the good nature through strong relationships and reasoning as well as minimizing the negative energy. This emphasis on normal living is seen in the Confucianist scholar Tu Wei-Ming's quote, "we can realize the ultimate meaning of life in ordinary human existence."[90]
Non-Abrahamic Iranian religions and philosophy
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- Further information: Iranian religions and Iranian philosophy
Zoroastrian view
Founded by Zoroaster, the Zoroastrianism message was that humans are responsible for the moral choices they make in a world of both good and evil options. For those who chose good actions, a blissful afterlife is promised, as well as a return to earth to continue life in a physical form. Those who chose evil actions would be doomed to a hellish afterlife.[91]
Scientific approaches
The primary aim of the scientific approach to the meaning of life is to describe the empirical facts about human existence. Claims that empirical science can shed light on issues such as the meaning of life are highly disputed within the scientific and philosophy-of-science communities, and have been from the very beginning of science. In spite of this, science has provided many theories about the origin of life and the world in which we live, in the areas of abiogenesis (for the origins of biological life) and cosmogony (for the origins of the universe). Both of these areas are quite hypothetical; cosmogony because no existing physical model can accurately describe the very early universe (the instant of the Big Bang),[92] and abiogenesis because the environment of the young earth is still not accurately known, and even though the conditions and chemical processes that may have been present then have been reproduced in a laboratory, to produce organic molecules, those very conditions are still under debate.[93][94][95] In addition, some scientists have also explored the human need for meaning and the nature of the mind in discussing the meaning of life.
Origin and nature of biological life
The exact mechanisms by which biological life could have originated from inanimate matter are unknown, but multiple theories have been posited, including the contemporary RNA world hypothesis. Some scientists claim life began on Earth as a primeval soup, while others believe that a more "complete" form of life arrived on our planet through exogenesis or panspermia. The initial mechanisms by which primitive cells were formed notwithstanding, almost all scientific origin theories are contingent upon the evolution of traits through mutation and natural selection.[96] Near the end of the 20th century, equipped with insights from the gene-centered view of evolution, biologists such as George C. Williams, Richard Dawkins and David Haig, to name a few, have suggested that insofar as there may be a primary function to life, it may be the survival of genes; following this approach, success is not measured in terms of the survival of species, but rather in terms of the successful replication of genes.[97]
The Big Bang and humanity's fate in this universe
Though the Big Bang model was met with much scepticism when first introduced, partially because of a connection to the religious concept of creation, it has become well supported by several independent observations.[98] However, current physics can only describe the early universe from 10-43 seconds after the Big Bang (where zero time corresponds to infinite temperature), a theory of quantum gravity would be required to go further back in time. Nevertheless, many physicists have speculated about what would have preceded this limit, and how our universe came into being.[99] They generally agree amongst themselves that the Big Bang occurred coincidentally, and when considering the anthropic principle, it is most often interpreted as implying the existence of a multiverse.[100]
Humanity's fate in this universe appears to be doomed as —even if humanity would survive that long— biological life will eventually become unsustainable, be it through a Big Freeze, Big Rip or Big Crunch. It would seem that the only way to survive indefinitely, would be by directing the flow of energy on a cosmic scale and altering the fate of the universe.[99]
Significance and value in life
Science may or may not be able to tell us what is of essential value in life, but some studies bear on related questions: Researchers in positive psychology (and earlier and less rigorously in humanistic psychology) study factors that lead to satisfaction in our lives. Social psychology examines factors that lead to infants thriving or failing to thrive, and in other areas of psychology questions of motivation, preference, and what people value. Economists have learned a great deal about what is valued in the marketplace; and sociology examines value at a social level using theoretical constructs such as value theory, norms, anomie, etc.
Scientific questions about the mind
The true nature and origin of consciousness and the mind itself are also widely debated in science, the explanatory gap is generally equated with the hard problem of consciousness, and the question of free will is also considered to be of fundamental importance. These subjects are mostly addressed in the fields of cognitive science, neuroscience and philosophy of mind, though some evolutionary biologists and theoretical physicists have also made several allusions to the subject.[101][102]
Reductionistic and eliminative materialistic approaches, such as the Multiple Drafts Model, hold that consciousness can be wholly explained by neuroscience through the workings of the brain and its neurons, accepting the view of biological naturalism.[103][104][105][106][107][102]
On the other hand, some scientists, like Andrei Linde, have considered that consciousness, like spacetime, might have its own intrinsic degrees of freedom, and that our perceptions may be as real as (or even more real than) material objects.[108] Hypotheses of consciousness and spacetime hold that consciousness exists separated from matter and explain consciousness in describing a "space of conscious elements"[108], often encompassing a number of extra dimensions.[109] Electromagnetic theories of consciousness solve the binding problem of consciou