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Probable Kamboja migration routes. See: Kambojas and Cambodia

References to Kambojas abound in ancient literature, and this may have been just the expansion of an Indo-Iranian tribe with both Indic and Persian affinities from their homeland in the present-day Afghanistan-Pakistan region along the foothills of the Himalayas towards Bengal, along the coast to Gujarat, to Sri Lanka, and possibly further to Cambodia.

Kambojas, Sakas etc enter Indian Mainland

During second/first century BC, in their advance from their original home in Central Asia, one stream of the Kambojas, allied with the Sakas and Pahlavas had proceeded to Sindhu, Sauvira and Surastra; while the other stream allied with Yavanas appears to have moved to Punjab and Uttar Pradesh ^{1 2 3}.

There are important references to the warring Mleccha hordes of the Sakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Pahlavas etc in the Bala Kanda of the Valmiki Ramayana⁴.

Indologists like H. C. Raychadhury, B. C. Law, Satya Shrava and others see in these verses the clear glimpses of the struggles of the Hindus with the mixed invading hordes of the barbaric Sakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Pahlavas etc from north-west.⁵ The time frame for these struggles is second century BCE downwards. Raychadhury fixes the date of the present version of the Valmiki Ramayana around/after second century CE.⁶

The invading hordes of the Sakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Pahlavas, Abhiras etc from the north-west had entered Punjab, United Province, Sindhu, Rajasthan and Gujarat in large numbers, wrested political control of northern India from the Indo-Aryans and had established their respective kingdoms/principalities in the land of the Indo-Aryans ^{7 8}.

There is also a distinct prophetic statement from the Vana Parava of the Mahabharata that the Mlechha (Barbaric) kings of the Sakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Bahlikas, Abhiras etc will rule the earth (i.e India) unrighteously in Kaliyuga ^{9 10}.

According to scholars like Edward Washburn Hopkins, H. C. Ray Chaudhury etc, this is too clear a statement to be ignored or explained away ¹¹. In fact, when this statement was written, the people mentioned above had already ruled India. If this were the only place where the names occurred, it might be regarded as a part of an interpolation in mass. But the people described here as foreign invaders are all mentioned repeatedly as barbarians and fierce warriors from the west. The Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas are portrayed as famous fighters ¹² wearing especially fine metal armors, expert cavalrymen ¹³ and their overthrow is alluded to ¹⁴. So also the Shanti Parva of Mahabharata ¹⁵ stigmatises the Yavanas, Kambojas, Gandharas, Kiratas and Barbaras as the sinners (un-rightous people) who are said to be wandering on this earth from the time of Treta age having customs similar to those of chandalas and wild animals ¹⁶.

Silver coin depicting the "Yavana" Greco-Bactrian king Demetrius I of Bactria (r.c. 205-171 BCE), invader of India around 180 BCE.
Obv. Draped and wearing an elephant scalp, symbol of his conquest of India.
Rev. Youthful, naked Heracles, crowning himself with right hand, with lion skin and upright club resting on his left arm. Greek legend: BASILEOS DIMITRIOU "King Demetrius".

The above referred to statement from Vana Parava of Mahabharata, couched as it is in the form of prophecy in true puranic style, alludes to a historical situation (second/first century BC downwards) which followed the collapse of Maurya and Sunga dynasties in North India ¹⁷.

That the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas etc indeed became rulers and masters of the earth (Aryan India) in Kaliyuga (post Mauryan era) is also attested from the Kalki Purana where a short dialogue between the Dharma and the Kalki (king Pramati or Chandragupta II Vikramaditya per V. S. Aggarwal) ^{18 19}, woefully deplores the forced occupation of the earth (Indian mainland) by the unrighteous rulers of the Kambojas, Sakas, Savaras, Mlecchas, Barbaras etc who are blamed to have spread adharma and chaos all around ²⁰.

Military defeats

This chaotic situation of Aryan India is said to have ended with the destruction of these Saka, Kamboja, Yavana, Parsika hordes by king Vikramaditya of Ujjaini (c. 60 BC) and the establishment of the Vikrama era ^{21 22 23 24 25}. Around 78-102 CE, Gautamiputra Satkarni defeated the Yavanas, Sakas and Pahlavas and assumed the title of sakayavanpallavanidusana (destroyer of the Sakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas.)

The Kambojas in Mathura

Sufficient evidence exists that around Christian era, Yavanas, Kambojas and the Sakas had occupied the heartland of India, that is, the modern state of Uttar Pradesh

Gargi-Samhita, Yuga Purana refers, in the form of a prophecy, to the invasion of Panchala, Mathura, Saketa and Pataliputra by the Yavanas ²⁶.

Though the Kambojas are not specifically mentioned in this passage, it goes without saying that the term Yavanas in Yuga-Purana definitely included the Kambojas and probably also the Sakas.

It is notable that after massive intrusion of India by Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Pahlavas around Christian era, the term Yavana had also become synonymous with Mlechcha and was a common designation for all foreign tribes irrespective of whether they were Yavanas, Sakas, Kambojas or others ²⁷.

Passages exist in the Mahabharata, Vayu Purana ²⁸ and Matsya Purana ²⁹ which include the Kambojas among the Yavanas and designate both as Yavanas.

There is another reason for this too. The culture of the Kambojas had been substantively altered due to their intimate contacts with the Yavanas. Both people are attested to follow common culture, social customs and manners like supporting short cropped hair ³⁰, non-entertainment of Brahmanas in their countries ³¹ and observing two varna (Arya and Dasa) social system instead of chatur-varna observed by the Indo-Aryans etc ³².

The Yonakambojesu expression in Ashoka's R.E XIII as well as in the Buddhist text Majjhima Nikaya ³³ powerfully attests very close relations of the Kambojas with the Yavanas.

Thus, it is not unusual that the Kambojas have sometimes been indiscriminately included among the Yavanas and addressed as such, in the later Sanskrit literature.

According to Buddha Parkash: "Along with the Sakas, the Kambojas had also entered India and spread into whole of North India, especially in Panjab and Uttar Pradesh. Mahabharata contains references to Yavanas and Kambojas as having conquered Mathura³⁴....There is also a reference to the Kambojas in the Lion Capitol inscriptions of Saka Satrap (Kshatrapa) Rajuvula found in Mathura " ³⁵.

Coin of Rajuvula (1st century CE).

Jayswal writes: "Mathura was under outlandish people like the Yavanas and Kambojas... who had a special mode of fighting" ³⁶.

Shashi Asthana comments: "Epic Mahabharata refers to the siege of Mathura by the Yavanas and Kambojas" ^{37 38}.

According to Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, Poona: "Mahabharata reference mentions the Yavanas-Kambojas as settled in the outlying parts of Mathura city" ^{39 40}.

The following verse from Mahabharata composed around the beginning of Christian era strongly attests the Kambojas and Yavanas in control of Mathura:

tatha Yavana Kamboja Mathuram.abhitash cha ye.|

ete ashava.yuddha.kushaladasinatyasi charminah.|| 5 || ⁴¹.

The Mathura Lion Capital discovered in 1896 from Saptarsi mound in the south-eastern part of Mathura city housed in the British Museum, London, contains an epigraph in Kharoshthi characters which refers, among others, to Yuvaraja Kharaosta Kamuio and Aiyasi Kamuia, the chief queen of the Great Satrap (Mahakshatrapa) Rajuvula. After fresh and thorough critical review of Mathura Lion Capital inscriptions, S. Konow has arrived at results and conclusions which are different from the earlier scholars.

According to Konow's findings, Rajuvula's chief queen was Aiyasi Kamuia who was the daughter of Yuvaraja Kharaostas, himself also a Kamuia.

By rigorous linguistic analysis, Konow has also established that name Kamuia/Kamuio of Lion Capital inscriptions is the Kharoshthised form of Sanskrit Kamboja, Kambojaka or Kambuja ^{42 43 44}.

See Main Article "Kamuia"

Thus, there is both literary as well as inscriptional evidence which amply attests the presence of ancient Kambojas in Mathura.

See also: [3] (India and Central Asia) and [4] (Yona)

King Moga or Maues: Probably a Scythianised Kamboj king

Scholars are at variance regarding the ethnic background of king Moga (other variants of the name are Moa, Maua, Mauaka, Muki, Mevake, Maues etc). According to many scholars including Dr Vincent Arthur Smith, Henry Miers Elliot, H. A. Rose, Firoze Cowasji Davar, Chandra Chakravarty etc, Maues or Moga was a Parthian king ⁴⁵. Several other scholars believe that he was a Scythian king.

However, another and later view is that king Moga or Maues belonged to Kamuia clan which fact is born out by Mathura Lion Capital Inscriptions. Arta is said to be the elder brother of king Maues ⁴⁶. Yuvaraja Kharaosta Kamuio was son of Arta as is attested from Kharaosta's own coins ⁴⁷. Princess Aiyasi Kamuia, the chief queen of Kshatrapa Rajuvula, was the daughter of this Crown prince (Yuvaraja) Kharaosta Kamuio ⁴⁸. Many scholars including S. Konow recognise the names Kamuia & Kamuio (q.v) of the Mathura Lion Capital Inscriptions as the Kharoshthi/Prakritic forms of Sanskrit/Pali Kambojika or Kamboja ⁴⁹. Thus, according to Konow and his line of scholars, king Moga, his brother Arta, Yuvaraja Kharaostas (Kharoshtha) Kamuio, and princess Aiyasi Kamuia were all from the Kamuiá or Kamboja/Kambojaka or Kambuja lineage ^{50 51}.

Indian-standard coin of King Moga or Maues. The obverse shows a rejoicing elephant holding a wreath, symbol of victory. The Greek legend reads ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΝ ΜΕΓΑΛΟΥ ΜΑΥΟΥ (Great King of Kings Maues). The reverse shows a seated king, or possibly Buddha. Kharoshthi legend: RAJATIRAJASA MAHATASA MOASA (Great King of Kings Maues).

Some scholars insist that Moga or Maues was of Saka extractions, but there is absolutely no definitive evidence so far to link Moga to Saka ethnicity. Scholars link Moga to the Sakas merely based on his so-called Saka-sounding names like Moa, Maua, Maues, Muki or Mevake etc which are said to be variants of Scythian name 'Mauakes', 'Mauekes' or 'Mauaces' ^{52 53 54}. This Saka-name criteria is not a very convincing reasoning to identify king Maues as of Saka extractions.

As is well known, during few centuries preceding the Christian era, there had occurred extensive social and cultural admixture among the Kambojas and Yavanas; the Sakas and Pahlavas; and the Kambojas, Sakas, and Pahlavas. ... such that their cultures and social customs had become almost identical. The culture of Kambojas was modified as a result of their contacts, first with the Yavanas and later, it went further modification as a result of their contacts with the Sakas and Pahlavas etc ⁵⁵. This extensive social and cultural admixture due to time and space proximity had led to adoption of similar customs, dress mode, language and social manners among the various frontier peoples of north-west. While ruling over middle and lower Indus valley--Drangiana and Archosia--, both the Sakas and Pahlavas were closely associated and no wonder it is not always possible to distinguish them apart. The close association of the Sakas and Pahlavas etc in this period is demonstrable from various sources and it is highly probable that the tribes from eastern Iran invading or entering India contained diverse elements including Iranians ⁵⁶. It is therefore, little more than a convenient nomenclature which labels the princes of the family of Maues as Sakas and those of the family of Vonones as Pahlavas ⁵⁷. Thus, we see that the identification of Maues as Saka prince is merely a CONJECTURE and is based simply on so-called SAKA-SOUNDING names which is no conclusive evidence at all. If one accepts above argument, then how to explain surname Kamuia used after the names of king Moga's family members? Is Kamuia also attested as a clan name among the ancient Sakas/Scythians anywhere? The answer is simply no ⁵⁸.

As stated before, there is no unanimity on the ethnicity of king Moga and his family.

Greek-standard silver tetradrachm of Maues. The obverse shows Zeus standing with a sceptre. The Greek legend reads ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΣ ΒΑΣΙΛΕΩΝ ΜΕΓΑΛΟΥ ΜΑΥΟΥ ((of the) Great King of Kings Maues). The reverse shows Nike standing, holding a wreath. Kharoshthi legend. Taxila mint.

Scholars like V. A. Smith say that he was a Parthian king^{59 60}. H. A Rose also agrees with Smith and regards king Maues as an Indo-Parthian king ⁶¹. Chandra Chakravarti, though accepts Kamuia as Kambojika or Kambojika, regards Moga as of Parthian ethnicity ⁶². Others say that he was Saka king. S. Konow and some later scholars like R K. Mukerjee, J.L. Kamboj, K. S. Dardi and others following Konow think that king Moga belonged to the Kambojika or Kambuja ethnicity.

According to Thomas, the epigraphs of Mathura Lion Capital exhibit a mixture of Saka and Persian nomenclature. This tells us that Aiyasi Kamuia and Kharaosta Kamuio were from the Persian/Iranian denominations hence more likely from Kamboja ethnicity.

" The nomenclature of the early Sakas in India shows an admixture of Scythian, Parthian and Iranian elements. .... " ⁶³.

Even the northern Kshatrapas are stated to be of mixed Saka/Persian ethnicities.

Thomas: " It would seem probable that the tribes from eastern Iran who had invaded India included diverse elements mingled indistinguishably together, so that, it is not possible to assert that one dynasty was Parthian while another was Saka. .." etc ⁶⁴.

Thus, the ethnic surnames Kamuia/Kamuio used with the names of princess Aiyasi and Yuvaraja Kharaosta (or Kharahostes) of Mathura Lion Capital inscriptions should give more than enough credibility to the view that king Moga and his family belonged to 'Kamuia' or 'Kamboja/Kambuja' clan. It is reasonable to think that the Kamboja clan of king Moga had become some what Scythianised in social customs, culture and mannerism due to its extensive exposure to the next-door vast community of Central Asian tribes which had followed Scythian culture. Under such a scenario, it is absolutely not unusual for the Kamboja family of king Maues or Moga to have borne names which may sound somewhat Scythian or mixture of Scythian and Parthian.

Probably, this is the clue to king Moga's ethnic identity.

Therefore, King Maues or Moga and his family were most probably from Kambojan rather than Scythian lineage ⁶⁵.

There are some European and Indian scholars who consider the Kambojas to be a Scythian off-shoot and/or a (royal) clan of the Sakas/Scythians ^{66 67 68 69 70}. If this view is accepted, it immediately blows off any mist and confusion about true ethnicity of king Moga and his family. But according to some Scholars, originally, the Kambojas may have been Aryan not Iranian/Scythian in culture ⁷¹.

The Kambojas in West/Southwest India

The Kamboja hordes of the second/first century BCE have left indelible foot prints in the names of mountains, rivers, and some geographical places in western India. The Kamb/Kambuh river and Kamboh/Kambo mountain in Sindh ⁷² remind us of Sanskrit Kamboja. The Kamboi (ancient town/port) in Patan district, Khambhoj in district Anand, Kambay (port/town and Gulf) ... all in Saurashtra; Kumbhoj/Kambhoj (an ancient town) in Kolhapur in Maharashtra; and the Coimbatore city of Tamil Nadu in southern India carry unmistakable footprints of the Kambojas. There is also an ancient Kambhoj caste living near Nanded in Maharashtra (See links: [5] , [6] ) ⁷³ which could be a dwindling remnant of the ancient Kambojas settled in South-west India.

As noted below, there are numerous ancient Sanskrit references which profusely affirm that the Kambojas had indeed been in occupation of territories in south-western and southern India, in the post-Christian times.

Jyotirvidhbhrana, a Sanskrit Treatise on Astrology is generally attributed to Kalidasa in its last Stenzas, (but probably, it was authored by someone of Jaina persuasion around 7th century). In chapter 22, verse 14, the author writes: 'He (Sahasanka) destroyed the pride of Dravidas, also the king of Lata, defeated the king of Gauda and conquered Gurjardesa, king of Dhara (westerm Malwa) and king of Kambojas and conducted him with success' ⁷⁴. In chapter 20, verse 46 of Jyotirvidhbhrana, the author states: 'The people of Kamboja, Gauda, Andhraka, Malava, Surajya and Gurjaras, even to this day sing the glory of Sahasanka (alias Vikarmaditya alias Chandra Gupta II), showing with the liberality of gifts of gold' ⁷⁵. These references seem to imply that once Vikarmaditya had conquered Lata, Dhara (western Malwa), Saurashtra, Gujaradesa and as well as vanquished the Sakas, Kambojas, Gurjaras intruders of Gujarat/Saurashtra/Malawa from northwest, these aliens had become his subjects for sometime and started paying tributes to the great Gupta king Vikarmaditya (Chandra Gupta II) for his great benevolent rule—---hence this Jyotirvidbhrana tradition. From this reference, it also becomes understandable that once these foreign warlike intruders had been subjugated, many of them must have joined the armed forces of the Gupta rulers in large numbers and some of them like General Bhattarka, founder of Maitraka dynasty of Gujerat, had obtained placements in key positions. This Jyotirvidhbhrana reference definitely locates the Kambojas in south-western India i.e. near Lata, Saurashtra and western Malwa somewhere.

Markendeya Purana ⁷⁶ lists the Kambojas and Pahlavas (Indo-Parthians) among the countries of Udichya division i.e Uttarapatha, but another chapter of the same Markendeya Purana also refers to other settlements of the Kambojas and Pahlavas and locates them in the south-west of India as neighbor to Sindhu, Sauvira and Anarta (north Saurashtra) countries ^{77 78 79 80 81}.

Geographical list of Brihat Samhita of Varaha Mihira (6th century CE) specifically places the Kambojas with the Pahlavas in the south-west division (nairrtyam dizi = southwest direction), Sind, Saurashtra/Kathiawar, contiguous to Malwa and Dravida countries ^{82 83 84 85 86}.

Similarly, in his list of countries, Alberuni (973 AD --1048 AD) also assigns the Kamboja kingdom in the south-west (Nairita) quadrant of India ⁸⁷.

Arthashastra of Barhaspatya ⁸⁸ refers to the Kamboja as a great country (Mahavishaya) and locates it adjacent to the Dasrana country (eastern Malwa), east of Gujarat ⁸⁹. Distance between Kamboja and Dasarna country is stated to be 80 Yojna ⁹⁰.

Vishnudharmottara Purana ⁹¹ also includes the Kambojas in the list of Janapadas of south-west India ⁹².

Raajbilaas, a medieval era text also locates a Kamboj settlement in the neighborhood of Kachcha, Sorata or Saurashtra and Gurjara countries of south-west India ⁹³.

Interestingly, Agni Purana locates two Kamboja settlements in India itself...(1) Kambhoja in south-west India and (2) Kamboja in southern parts of India ⁹⁴.

The Garuda Purana which was composed comparatively late, also locates a Kamboj principality/settlement in the neighborhood of Ashmaka, Pulinda, Jimuta, Narashtra, Lata and Karnata countries, and also specifically informs us that this section of Kambojas were living in southern division of India (dakshina.path.vasinah) ⁹⁵.

But like Agni Purana, some recensions of Garuda Purana mention two Kamboja settlements within India proper. ...one in south-west India and the second in southern India ⁹⁶.

Some Buddhist inscriptions found in the Pal caves located about a mile north-west of Mhar in Kolaba district of Maharashtra, in Bombay Presidency, contains a reference to a Chief of a Kamboj dynasty as ruling in Kolaba (near Bombay) probably around first century of Christian era ⁹⁷.

The above post-Christian Sanskrit references abundantly establish the historical fact that in wake of major events of second/first century BCE, some sections of Central Asian Kambojas in alliance with the Sakas and Pahlavas, had spread and settled into western and south-western parts of India ⁹⁸.

The Kambojas in/around west, south-west India are also attested from inscriptions of king Sahasiva Raya of Sangama Dynasty (1336-1478), kings Harihara & Deva Raya of Narasinga Dynasty (1496-1567), and from the references of king Vishnuvardhana of Hoiyasala Dynasty/Mysore (of 12th c CE).

Due to the above cited literary/inscriptional evidence, some historians like Aiyangar, Banerjee etc have located their Kamboja in Sindhu and Gujarat ⁹⁹. Obviously, their Kamboja refers to the post-Christian settlements of Kambojas in western/or south-western India and is not the original Kamboja of the Sanskrit/Pali literature.

According to History of Ceylon, 'the Kambojas who inhabited a region bordering upper Indus, had, at one time, established themselves in a country near Sind....It was from this people that a section had migrated to Ceylone and settled in the island during pre-Christian times' ¹⁰⁰ According to Fergusson: "The Cambojas seem to have been a people inhabiting the country between Candahar and Cabul, who when the nomadic tide was setting eastwards, joined the crowd, and sought settlements in the more fertile countries within the Indus ( or Sind)" ¹⁰¹

Biography of Shankara Acharya based on his religious itineraries refers to Kambhoja located in Saurashtra comprising Girnar, Somnath, Prabhasa and other regions and a Kamboja located in Central Asia adjacent to Daradistan but lying north of Kashmir. This eighth-century reference clearly attests two Kamboja settlements, one of which specifically fixed in Saurashtra [7] ¹⁰².

Some historians have also invested western Kshatrapas, especially the Kshahrata Kshatrapas with Kamboja ethnicity ¹⁰³.

The Kambojas in South India

Interestingly, Kambhoja Raja Kathalu is very popular in Andhra traditions. The story deals with the militaristic exploits of a fierce and adventurous king of the Kambojas. It probably relates to some historical brush the Andhraites might have had with the intruding hordes of the Kambojas/Pahlavis around Christian era.

Kambojas in Tibet and Bengal

A branch of Central Asian Kambojas seems also to have migrated eastwards towards Tibet in the wake of Kushana (1st century) or else Huna (5th century) pressure and hence their notice in the chronicles of Tibet (Kam-po-tsa, Kam-po-ce, Kam-po-ji) and Nepal (Kambojadesa).¹⁰⁴ Burmese chronicles refer to them as Kampuchih. Later, these Kambojas appear to have moved towards Assam from where they may have invaded Bengal during the bad days of the Palas and wrested north-west Bengal from them. R. R. Diwarkar writes: "The Kambojas of ancient India are known to have been living in north-west, but in this period (9th c AD), they are known to have been living in the north-east India also, and very probably, it was meant Tibet" ¹⁰⁵ Benjamin Walker remarks: A Branch of Kambojas (originally living in north-west of India) seems to have migrated eastwards along the Himalayan foothills, hence their notices in thy Tibetan and Nepalese chronicles ¹⁰⁶. Brahma Purana of 5th c AD mentions the Kambojas around Pragjyotisha and Tamraliptika.^{107 108}. Buddhist text Sasanavamsa¹⁰⁹ also attests the Kambojas in/around Assam. These Kambojas had made first bid to conquer Bengal during the reign of king Devapala (810 AD-850 AD) but were repulsed. A latter attempt was crowned with success when they were able to deprive the Palas of the suzerainty over North and West Bengal and set up a Kamboja dynasty in Bengal towards the middle of 10th century AD ^{110 111}. According to Dr P. C. Bagchi, Dr S Chattopadhya etc: "The Kambojas, a nomadic tribe, lived beyond Himalayas in Central Asia. One of their branches entered India in very early times and after a while lost its identity as distinct people by merging into the local population, but other batches of them must have entered east Tibet and the valley of Mekong from another direction. By this assumption only, we can explain why the name Kambuja was given to the kingdom founded in the middle valley of the Mekong. In eastern Tibet their name can be traced in the name of the province of Khams and it was probably from this region that the Kamboja invasion of Assam took place in later times. A branch of them migrated to North Bengal at an early period though their actual invasion came at a later date"^{112 113}.

Rajyapala, Narayanapala, Nayapala, Dharamapala and Kambojanvayjen Gaudapati, are the known Kamboja kings who ruled in north-east Bengal. Kamboja rule in north-east Bengal is attested from Dinajpore Pillar Inscription as well as from Irda Tamrapatra inscriptio found in Irda, District Balasor, Orissa, in 1931 ¹¹⁴.

Dinajpore Pillar inscription refers to a Kamboja king who is described as Kambojanvayjen Gaudapati.. i.e. the lord of Gauda born in a Kamboja family ¹¹⁵.

In the inscription, this Kamboja king is addressed as Kunjarghataversheyan, which may be his nick-name.

Irda-Tamrapatra inscription gives details of generation after generation of kings belonging to Kamboja family. King Rajayapala, the founder father of Pala-Kamboja empire in Bengal specifically refers to himself as Kamboja.vamshatilaka.paramasaugata.maharajadhiraja.parameshvara.paramabhattaraka Rajyapala ¹¹⁶.

Jaganathaparkasha composed by Pandit Sura Misra in honor of Jagana Natha born in Kamboja family (Kamboja.kulavatansah.shri. Jagananatha iti prasidhah) refers to him as a famous king ruling in Bengal in 16th century ^{117 118}

This shows that the Kamboja rule in some parts of Bengal must have continued, as late as 16th century AD.

See also: Kamboja Dynasty of Bengal

Kambojas in Sri Lanka

Main article: Kamboja Colonists of Sri Lanka

Inscriptional and Literary Evidence

One section of north-western Kambojas appears to have reached Sri Lanka via Gujarat/Saurashtra, several centuries prior to Christian era, thus contributing to the colonization of that island and influencing the social, cultural and economical lives of its people. This is evident from seven or eight ancient epigraphic inscriptions found in Anuradhapura which strongly attest the existence of one Kamboja Sangha (Goshatha) ¹¹⁹ and Grand Kamboja Guilds ¹²⁰ in ancient Sinhala.

S. Paranavitana: "Several early Brahmi inscriptions of Ceylon refer to a community of people called Kambojas who then lived in various parts of Ceylon, and an early Pali text refers to a Kambojagama in Rohana" ¹²¹.

For complete list of Ancient Inscriptions about Kambojas in Sri Lanka, please Click: [8]

These inscriptions are believed to belong to second century BCE (S. Paranavitana).

According to scholars, there is evidence that the Kambojas who in ancient times, inhabited a region bordering upper Indus, had at one time established themselves in a country near Sind. The authors have also furnished references to the southwards migration of the Kambojas to a country near Sind¹²².

The Sihalavatthu, a Pali text of about the fourth century, also attests a group of people called the Kambojas in Rohana. The third story of this text, called Metteyya-vatthu, reveals that the Elder named Maleyya was residing in Kamboja-gama, in the province (Janapada) of Rohana on the Island of Tambapanni (Sri Lanka).

Sasanvamsa attests one Bhikshu Tamalinda thera, son of Kamboja, living in ancient Sinhala. It also attests a Kamboja king Srihamsyia, who came from Kamboja and took possession of Ratanapura in south-west Sinhala ¹²³.

Sri-Lanka, Ancient Sinhala

The second most referenced ethnic group following the Aryan Kambojas in the ancient epigraphic inscriptions of Anuradhapura are the (Dravidian) Damedas or Tamils. Term Dameda occurs in five inscriptions. Term Milaka (Mlechcha) referring to the Aborigines of the island i.e the Veddas, occurs twice. Other three terms Muridi (=Murinda?), Meraya (Maurya?) and Jhavaka each occurs only once.

There is no reference to the name Sinhala as such, in any of these ancient inscriptions. The first ever reference to Sinhala is noted in 5th century Dipavamsa and then in 6th century Mahavamas. This proves that the Sinhala identity for the majority Sinhlese speaking Aryan population had evolved much later, down the road.

The above inscriptional and literary evidence shows that the Kamboja colonists from north-west had formed an important and pre-dominant section of ancient Sinhala society, perhaps from several centuries prior to Christian era. Therefore, they must have been the first Aryan colonists to have reached the island.

The Sinhapura of Ancient Sinhalese

Mahavamsa traditions reveal that Vijay Simha and his 700 companions, the supposed ancestors of Sinhalese Aryan population, had migrated from some Simhapura country located in India proper ¹²⁴.

Mahabharata attests one Sinhapura principality located in north-west of India. This Sinhapura figures prominently in Arjuna's Digvijay of north-west countries. It is stated to be located contiguous to Ursa (modern Hazara, in Kashmir).

After the Sinhapura, the Epic makes reference to Bahlikas (or Bactrians), Daradas and Kambojas, thus showing that the Sinhapura of Mahabharata was located in the north-west adjacent to Kambojas and Daradas of Upper Indus¹²⁵ .

Chetiya Jataka also locates one Simhapura in the west¹²⁶.

Hiun Tsang, seventh century Chinese visitor also attests one Simhapura (Sang-ho-pu-lo) on east bank of river Indus about 115 miles east of Taxila, which localizes it in upper doab of Jhelum/Chenab ¹²⁷.

Scholars have located this Sinhapura in upper Salt Range, north-west of Panjab ¹²⁸.

Tantric literature locates Sambhala (i.e Simhala) and Lankapuri in the SWAT-KASHMIR region ^{129 130}.

Sinhala, as a personal name is also attested from two Kharoshthi inscriptions found from Loriyan Tangai and Taksashila in ancient Gandhara¹³¹.

The appellative terms Gamika (=Gamini=Gramini) and Parumaka (=Pramukha) and the corporational terms Puga (=Guild/Sangha) and Gote (=Goshati=corporation) etc have been used specifically in reference to Kambojas in the ancient inscriptions of Sinhala. As attested by Kautiliya's Arthashastra, these republican/corporational terms were applied to political, military and commercial Sanghas or Guilds of the Kambojas of Uttarapatha around 4th c BCE. Thus, this evidence suggests that Vijay Simha and his 700 companions, the ancestors of the ancient Sinhalas may have been from the Kambojan/Gandharan trade group.

The 'shaved-headed tradition' about Vijay and his companions has been referred to in the Mahavamsa. This also alludes to their close connections with the north-west and especially with the shaved-headed Kambojan group.

Archeological Finds

The most famous and only known locale for lapis lazuli since ancient times was in Badakshan in north Afghanistan which has been mined for over 6000 years. The Badakshan province undoubtedly formed a part of ancient Kamboja as we have already proved above. Archeological finds of lapis lazuli (of Badakshan type) from Sri Lanka conclusively connect it to Badakshan in Afghanistan, the home of lapis lazuli.

Numerous coins, beads and the intaglios belonging to Bactria/Afghanistan have also been discovered in Sri Lanka. Apart from lapis lazuli, coins and intaglios, the contacts between Sri Lanka and the Kamboja/Gandhara/Bacteria region are further revealed by other articles of archaeological evidence from recent excavations at various sites. A fragment of a Gandhara Buddha statute in schist, (yet unpublished), was unearthed from the excavations at Jetavanarama in Anuradhapura.

All these archaeological finds conclusively establish a very close relationship between Sri Lanka and the north-west communities, especially, the Kambojans/Gandharans of Afghanistan/Central Asia.

A Merchant Lineage

In the Amarakosha¹³², a Sarthavaha is described as the leader of merchants who have invested an equal amount of capital and carried on trade with outside markets and are traveling in a caravan.

It is likely that Vijay Simha, the ancestor of the Sinhalese was the earliest one such Sarthavaha from the Simhapura of the Kamboja/Gandhara group in North-west India. According to Mahavamsa traditions, Vijay and his 700 companions had landed in Sri Lanka in 543 (or 483?) BCE, on the day of Buddha's heavenly departure. This may actually refer to Vijay's commercial visit to Sri Lanka for trade with the Damedas/Tamils in Sinhala and then permanently settling there with his 700 merchant associates. The Dameda/Tamil groups were already settled there with whom the trade was routinely carried on from the north-west following ancient Kamboja Dvaravati Caravan route and then via the west-coast sea-route starting from Bharukachcha (Bhroach) in Gujarat.

The north-west coast of Sinhala was famous for its fine variety of motis/gems and was known as Moti-mannar. The south-east coast was also known for its precious stones. The merchants from north-west Kamboja had an allurement for these specific products.

It is also significant that early Buddhist literary sources from north India refer to the northerners as being involved in trade in horses ¹³³. Evidence exists that horse merchants from Kamboja were in active trade as far as Ceylone. This trade had been going on with eastern, western and southern India as late as medieval ages. King Devapala (810-850 AD) of Bengal, king Vallabhadeva (12th century AD) of Assam and King Vishnuvardhana of Hoysala (1106 - 1152 AD) of Mysore located in extreme southern tip of India had powerful fleets of Kamboja horses in their cavalry.

Don Martino write the horse dealers from north-west Kamboja had been carrying out trade in horses with Sri Lanka following west-coast of India since remote antiquity. "The Kambojas came to Sri Lanka probably as horse-dealers and a colony of them may have settled permanently in Anuradhapura in company with Yavanas when the city was in zeninth of its glory" ¹³⁴.

E. Muller also writes that (with time) the Kambojas had adopted the Mussalman creed and used to trade all along the west coast of India from Persian Gulf down to Ceylone and probably further-east¹³⁵.

More evidence exists which points to closer links of north-west Kambojas/Gandharas with the ancient Sinhalese.

Kambojas in Indochina

Main article: Kambojas and Kambodia

Some ambitious Kamboja families from Gujarat/Saurashtra or those from Sinhala appear to have ventured into Indochina around third or fourth century CE, originally as merchants/traders, later joined by some Kshatriya Kamboja chieftain. They managed to found a small Kamboja colony north of Funan, which later grew into powerful Kamboja empire under the Varman kings. If the European traders, located thousands of miles away could do it in eighteenth century in India, the Kamboja adventurers from Gujarat/Surastra or Sri Lanka could have done it in fifth century in nearby Indochina too. The Kambojas as traders and as ethnic community were already flourishing in Sri Lanka at this time as is evident from the archaeological evidence presented above. With one little step forward, they were in Indochina. The ruling family of Varman kings of Cambodia proudly trace their lineage to the Kambujas or Kambojas. King Kambu (Sanskrit Kamboj), the legendary patriarch of Kambuja (Kamboja) ruling family of Cambodia was, to all probability, a warrior/scholar Kamboja chieftain from Sinhala or else from Gujarat. The tradition among north-Indian Kambojas lends adequate credibility to this view.

This article is part of the History of Cambodia series
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Several noted scholars like Buddha Parkash, P. C. Bagchi, B. R. Chatterjee, J. Fergussan, R. K. Mukerjee, Bombay Gezetteer, J. L. Kamboj, Chandra Chakraberty, Daniel George Edward, Ramchandra Narayan Dandekar, V Raghavan, Mahesh Kumar Sharana and several others have accepted a direct historical and political connection between the Indian Kambojas and Kambodia. G. Coedes, an unquestioned authority on ancient Cambodian history, has also accepted the probability of this connection ¹³⁶.

One school of scholars including V. A. Smith, Joveau Dubreuil, V. Venkayya, B. L. Rice, Cadambi Minakshi, G. Coedes etc is convinced that the Pallava rulers of Kanchi/Southern India were a section from the Iranian Pahlavas. The Pahlavas were a tribe closely allied to the Kambojas. Thus, some adventurous families from both the Pahlavas and the Kambojas who are attested to have settled in south-west India in post-Christian era ¹³⁷ may indeed have founded the Pallava dynasty of Kanchi and the Kambuja dynasty of Cambodia respectively.

References