Ketamine Hydrochloride (Page 2 of 5)

Pediatric Neurotoxicity

Published animal studies demonstrate that the administration of anesthetic and sedation drugs that block NMDA receptors and/or potentiate GABA activity increase neuronal apoptosis in the developing brain and result in long-term cognitive deficits when used for longer than 3 hours. The clinical significance of these findings is not clear. However, based on the available data, the window of vulnerability to these changes is believed to correlate with exposures in the third trimester of gestation through the first several months of life, but may extend out to approximately three years of age in humans (see PRECAUTIONS: Pregnancy).

Some published studies in children suggest that similar deficits may occur after repeated or prolonged exposures to anesthetic agents early in life and may result in adverse cognitive or behavioral effects. These studies have substantial limitations, and it is not clear if the observed effects are due to the anesthetic/sedation drug administration or other factors such as the surgery or underlying illness.

Anesthetic and sedation drugs are a necessary part of the care of children needing surgery, other procedures, or tests that cannot be delayed, and no specific medications have been shown to be safer than any other. Decisions regarding the timing of any elective procedures requiring anesthesia should take into consideration the benefits of the procedure weighed against the potential risks.

PRECAUTIONS

General

Ketamine hydrochloride injection should be used by or under the direction of physicians experienced in administering general anesthetics and in maintenance of an airway and in the control of respiration.

Because pharyngeal and laryngeal reflexes are usually active, ketamine hydrochloride injection should not be used alone in surgery or diagnostic procedures of the pharynx, larynx, or bronchial tree. Mechanical stimulation of the pharynx should be avoided, whenever possible, if ketamine hydrochloride injection is used alone. Muscle relaxants, with proper attention to respiration, may be required in both of these instances.

Resuscitative equipment should be ready for use.

The incidence of emergence reactions may be reduced if verbal and tactile stimulation of the patient is minimized during the recovery period. This does not preclude the monitoring of vital signs (see SPECIAL NOTE).

The intravenous dose should be administered over a period of 60 seconds. More rapid administration may result in respiratory depression or apnea and enhanced pressor response.

In surgical procedures involving visceral pain pathways, ketamine hydrochloride injection should be supplemented with an agent which obtunds visceral pain.

Use with caution in the chronic alcoholic and the acutely alcohol-intoxicated patient.

An increase in cerebrospinal fluid pressure has been reported following administration of ketamine hydrochloride. Use with extreme caution in patients with preanesthetic elevated cerebrospinal fluid pressure.

Carcinogenesis, Mutagenesis, Impairment of Fertility

Carcinogenesis

Long-term animal studies have not been conducted to evaluate the carcinogenic potential of ketamine.

Mutagenesis

In a published report, ketamine was clastogenic in the in vitro chromosomal aberration assay.

Impairment of Fertility

Adequate studies to evaluate the impact of ketamine on male or female fertility have not been conducted. Male and female rats were treated with 10 mg/kg ketamine IV (0.8 times the average human induction dose of 2 mg/kg IV based on body surface area) on Days 11, 10, and 9 prior to mating. No impact on fertility was noted; however, this study design does not adequately characterize the impact of a drug on fertility endpoints.

Pregnancy

Risk Summary

There are no adequate and well-controlled studies of ketamine hydrochloride injection in pregnant women. In animal reproduction studies in rats developmental delays (hypoplasia of skeletal tissues) were noted at 0.3 times the human intramuscular dose of 10 mg/kg. In rabbits, developmental delays and increased fetal resorptions were noted at 0.6 times the human dose. Published studies in pregnant primates demonstrate that the administration of anesthetic and sedation drugs that block NMDA receptors and/or potentiate GABA activity during the period of peak brain development increases neuronal apoptosis in the developing brain of the offspring when used for longer than 3 hours. There are no data on pregnancy exposures in primates corresponding to periods prior to the third trimester in humans.

The estimated background risk of major birth defects and miscarriage for the indicated population is unknown. All pregnancies have a background risk of birth defect, loss, or other adverse outcomes. In the U.S. general population, the estimated background risk of major birth defects and miscarriage in clinically recognized pregnancies is 2 to 4% and 15 to 20%, respectively.

Clinical Considerations

Since the safe use in pregnancy, including obstetrics (either vaginal or abdominal delivery), has not been established, such use is not recommended (see ANIMAL PHARMACOLOGY AND TOXICOLOGY).

Data

Animal Data

Pregnant rats were treated intramuscularly with 20 mg/kg ketamine (0.3 times the human dose of 10 mg/kg IM based on body surface area) on either Gestation Days 6 to 10 or Gestation Days 11 to 15. Ketamine treatment produced an increased incidence of hypoplastic skull, phalanges, and sternebrae in the pups.

Pregnant rabbits were treated intramuscularly with 20 mg/kg ketamine (0.6 times the human dose of 10 mg/kg IM based on body surface area) on either Gestation Days 6 to 10 or Gestation Days 11 to 15. An increase in resorptions and skeletal hypoplasia of the fetuses were noted. Additional pregnant rabbits were treated intramuscularly with a single dose 60 mg/kg (1.9 times the human dose of 10 mg/kg IM based on body surface area) on Gestation Day 6 only. Skeletal hypoplasia was reported in the fetuses.

In a study where pregnant rats were treated intramuscularly with 20 mg/kg ketamine (0.3 times the human dose of 10 mg/kg IM based on body surface area) from Gestation Day 18 to 21. There was a slight increase in incidence of delayed parturition by one day in treated dams of this group. No adverse effects on the litters or pups were noted; however, learning and memory assessments were not completed.

Three pregnant beagle dogs were treated intramuscularly with 25 mg/kg ketamine (1.3 times the human dose of 10 mg/kg IM based on body surface area) twice weekly for the three weeks of the first, second, and third trimesters of pregnancy, respectively, without the development of adverse effects in the pups.

In a published study in primates, administration of an anesthetic dose of ketamine for 24 hours on Gestation Day 122 increased neuronal apoptosis in the developing brain of the fetus. In other published studies, administration of either isoflurane or propofol for 5 hours on Gestation Day 120 resulted in increased neuronal and oligodendrocyte apoptosis in the developing brain of the offspring. With respect to brain development, this time period corresponds to the third trimester of gestation in the human. The clinical significance of these findings is not clear; however, studies in juvenile animals suggest neuroapoptosis correlates with long-term cognitive deficits (see WARNINGS: Pediatric Neurotoxicity, PRECAUTIONS: Pediatric Use, and ANIMAL TOXICOLOGY AND PHARMACOLOGY).

Information for Patients

Risk of Drowsiness

As appropriate, especially in cases where early discharge is possible, the duration of ketamine hydrochloride injection and other drugs employed during the conduct of anesthesia should be considered. The patients should be cautioned that driving an automobile, operating hazardous machinery or engaging in hazardous activities should not be undertaken for 24 hours or more (depending upon the dosage of ketamine hydrochloride injection and consideration of other drugs employed) after anesthesia.