Oseltamivir Phosphate (Page 6 of 8)

12.4 Microbiology

Mechanism of Action

Oseltamivir phosphate is an ethyl ester prodrug requiring ester hydrolysis for conversion to the active form, oseltamivir carboxylate. Oseltamivir carboxylate is an inhibitor of influenza virus neuraminidase affecting release of viral particles. The median IC 50 values of oseltamivir against influenza A/H1N1, influenza A/H3N2, and influenza B clinical isolates were 2.5 nM (range 0.93 to 4.16 nM, N=74), 0.96 nM (range 0.13 to 7.95 nM, N=774), and 60 nM (20 to 285 nM, N=256), respectively, in a neuraminidase assay with a fluorescently labeled MUNANA substrate.

Antiviral Activity

The antiviral activity of oseltamivir carboxylate against laboratory strains and clinical isolates of influenza virus was determined in cell culture. The concentrations of oseltamivir carboxylate required for inhibition of influenza virus in cell culture were highly variable depending on the assay method used and the virus tested. The 50% and 90% effective concentrations (EC 50 and EC 90 ) were in the range of 0.0008 micromolar to greater than 35 micromolar and 0.004 micromolar to greater than 100 micromolar, respectively (1 micromolar=0.284 microgram per mL). The relationship between the antiviral activity in cell culture, inhibitory activity in the neuraminidase assay, and the inhibition of influenza virus replication in humans has not been established.

Resistance

Cell culture studies: Influenza A virus isolates with reduced susceptibility to oseltamivir carboxylate have been recovered by serial passage of virus in cell culture in the presence of increasing concentrations of oseltamivir carboxylate. Reduced susceptibility of influenza virus to inhibition by oseltamivir carboxylate may be conferred by amino acid substitutions in the viral neuraminidase and/or hemagglutinin proteins.

Clinical studies: Reduced susceptibility isolates have been obtained during treatment with oseltamivir and from sampling during community surveillance studies. Changes in the viral neuraminidase that have been associated with reduced susceptibility to oseltamivir carboxylate are summarized in Table 8. The clinical impact of this reduced susceptibility is unknown.

Hemagglutinin (HA) substitutions selected in cell culture and associated with reduced susceptibility to oseltamivir include (influenza virus subtype-specific numbering) A11T, K173E, and R453M in H3N2; and H99Q in influenza B virus (Yamagata lineage). In some cases, HA substitutions were selected in conjunction with known NA resistance substitutions and may contribute to reduced susceptibility to oseltamivir; however, the impact of HA substitutions on antiviral activity of oseltamivir in humans is unknown and likely to be strain-dependent.

Table 8 Neuraminidase Amino Acid Substitutions Associated with Reduced Susceptibility to

Oseltamivir

Amino Acid Substitution*
Influenza A N1 (N1 numbering in brackets)

I117V (I117V), E119V (E119V), R152K (R152K), Y155H (Y155H), F173V (F174V), D198G/N

(D199G/N), I222K/R/T/V (I223K/R/T/V), S246N (S247N), G248R+I266V (G249R+I267V), H274Y

(H275Y), N294S (N295S), Q312R+I427T (Q313R+I427T), N325K (N325K), R371K (R368K)

Influenza A N2
E41G, E119I/V, D151V, I222L/V, Q226H, SASG245-248 deletion, S247P, R292K, N294S
Influenza B (B numbering in brackets)

E119A (E117A), P141S (P139S), G142R (G140R), R152K (R150K), D198E/N/Y (D197E/N/Y),

I222L/T/V (I221L/T/V), A246D/S/T (A245D/S/T), H274Y (H273Y), N294S (N294S), R371K

(R374K), G402S (G407S)

* All numbering is N2, except where indicated

Selection of influenza A viruses resistant to oseltamivir can occur at higher frequencies in children. The incidence of oseltamivir treatment-associated resistance in pediatric treatment studies has been detected at rates of 27 to 37% and 3 to 18% (3/11 to 7/19 and 1/34 to 9/50 post-treatment isolates, respectively) for influenza A/H1N1 virus and influenza A/H3N2 virus, respectively. The frequency of resistance selection to oseltamivir and the prevalence of such resistant virus vary seasonally and geographically.

Circulating seasonal influenza strains expressing neuraminidase resistance-associated substitutions have been observed in individuals who have not received oseltamivir treatment. The oseltamivir resistance-associated substitution H275Y was found in more than 99% of US-circulating 2008 H1N1 influenza virus isolates. The 2009 H1N1 influenza virus (“swine flu”) was almost uniformly susceptible to oseltamivir; however, the frequency of circulating resistant variants can change from season to season. Prescribers should consider available information from the CDC on influenza virus drug susceptibility patterns and treatment effects when deciding whether to use oseltamivir phosphate.

Cross-resistance

Cross-resistance between oseltamivir and zanamivir has been observed in neuraminidase biochemical assays. The H275Y (N1 numbering) or N294S (N2 numbering) oseltamivir resistance-associated substitutions observed in the N1 neuraminidase subtype, and the E119V or N294S oseltamivir resistance-associated substitutions observed in the N2 subtype (N2 numbering), are associated with reduced susceptibility to oseltamivir but not zanamivir. The Q136K and K150T zanamivir resistance-associated substitutions observed in N1 neuraminidase, or the S250G zanamivir resistance-associated substitutions observed in influenza B virus neuraminidase, confer reduced susceptibility to zanamivir but not oseltamivir. The R292K oseltamivir resistance-associated substitution observed in N2, and the I222T, D198E/N, R371K, or G402S oseltamivir resistance-associated substitutions observed in influenza B virus neuraminidase, confer reduced susceptibility to both oseltamivir and zanamivir. These examples do not represent an exhaustive list of cross resistance-associated substitutions and prescribers should consider available information from the CDC on influenza drug susceptibility patterns and treatment effects when deciding whether to use oseltamivir phosphate.

No single amino acid substitution has been identified that could confer cross-resistance between the neuraminidase inhibitor class (oseltamivir, zanamivir) and the M2 ion channel inhibitor class (amantadine, rimantadine). However, a virus may carry a neuraminidase inhibitor associated substitution in neuraminidase and an M2 ion channel inhibitor-associated substitution in M2 and may therefore be resistant to both classes of inhibitors. The clinical relevance of phenotypic cross-resistance evaluations has not been established.

Immune Response

No influenza vaccine/oseltamivir interaction study has been conducted. In studies of naturally acquired and experimental influenza, treatment with oseltamivir phosphate did not impair normal humoral antibody response to infection.

13 NONCLINICAL TOXICOLOGY

13.1 Carcinogenesis, Mutagenesis, Impairment of Fertility

In 2-year carcinogenicity studies in mice and rats given daily oral doses of the prodrug oseltamivir phosphate up to 400 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg, respectively, the prodrug and the active form oseltamivir carboxylate induced no statistically significant increases in tumors over controls. The mean maximum daily exposures to the prodrug in mice and rats were approximately 130- and 320-fold, respectively, greater than those in humans at the recommended clinical dose based on AUC comparisons. The respective safety margins of the exposures to the active oseltamivir carboxylate were 15- and 50-fold.

Oseltamivir was found to be non-mutagenic in the Ames test and the human lymphocyte chromosome assay with and without enzymatic activation and negative in the mouse micronucleus test. It was found to be positive in a Syrian Hamster Embryo (SHE) cell transformation test. Oseltamivir carboxylate was non-mutagenic in the Ames test and the L5178Y mouse lymphoma assay with and without enzymatic activation and negative in the SHE cell transformation test.

In a fertility and early embryonic development study in rats, doses of oseltamivir at 50, 250, and 1500 mg/kg/day were administered to females for 2 weeks before mating, during mating and until day 6 of pregnancy. Males were dosed for 4 weeks before mating, during mating, and for 2 weeks after mating. There were no effects on fertility, mating performance or early embryonic development at any dose level. The highest dose in this study was approximately 115 times the human systemic exposure (AUC 0-24h ) of oseltamivir carboxylate that occurs after administration of the maximum recommended human dose.

14 CLINICAL STUDIES

14.1 Treatment of Influenza

Adults

Two randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind clinical trials of oseltamivir phosphate were conducted in adults between 18 and 65 years old, one in the U.S. and one outside the U.S., for the treatment of acute uncomplicated influenza. Eligible subjects had fever of at least 100ºF, accompanied by at least one respiratory symptom (cough, nasal symptoms, or sore throat) and at least one systemic symptom (myalgia, chills/sweats, malaise, fatigue, or headache), and influenza virus was known to be circulating in the community. Subjects were randomized to receive oral oseltamivir phosphate or placebo for 5 days. All enrolled subjects were allowed to take fever-reducing medications.

Of 1,355 subjects enrolled in these two trials, 849 (63%) subjects were influenza-infected (median age 34 years; 52% male; 90% Caucasian; 31% smokers). Of the 849 influenza-infected subjects, 95% were infected with influenza A, 3% with influenza B, and 2% with influenza of unknown type.

Study medication was started within 40 hours of onset of symptoms and administered twice daily for 5 days. Subjects were required to self-assess the influenza-associated symptoms (nasal congestion, sore throat, cough, aches, fatigue, headaches, and chills/sweats) twice daily as “none,” “mild,” “moderate,” or “severe”. Time to improvement was calculated from the time of treatment initiation to the time when all symptoms were assessed as “none” or “mild”. In both trials, there was a 1.3-day reduction in the median time to improvement in influenza-infected subjects who received oseltamivir phosphate 75 mg twice a day for 5 days compared to subjects who received placebo. Subgroup analyses by gender showed no differences in the treatment effect of oseltamivir phosphate in men and women.

In the treatment of influenza, no increased efficacy was demonstrated in subjects who received higher doses of oseltamivir phosphate.

Adolescents and Adults with Chronic Cardiac or Respiratory Disease

A double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicenter trial was unable to demonstrate efficacy of oseltamivir phosphate (75 mg twice daily for 5 days) in the treatment of influenza in adult and adolescent subjects (13 years or older) with chronic cardiac (excluding chronic idiopathic hypertension) or respiratory diseases, as measured by time to alleviation of all symptoms. However, in patients treated with oseltamivir phosphate there was a more rapid cessation of febrile illness. No difference in the incidence of influenza complications was observed between the treatment and placebo groups in this population.

Geriatric Subjects

Three double-blind placebo-controlled treatment trials were conducted in subjects who were at least 65 years of age in three consecutive seasons. The enrollment criteria were similar to that of adult trials with the exception of fever being defined as higher than 97.5°F. Of 741 subjects enrolled, 476 (65%) subjects were influenza-infected; of these, 95% were infected with influenza type A and 5% with influenza type B.

In the pooled analysis, there was a 1-day reduction in the median time to improvement in influenza-infected subjects who received oseltamivir phosphate 75 mg twice daily for 5 days compared to those who received placebo (p=NS) [see Use in Specific Populations (8.5)]. Some seasonal variability was noted in the clinical efficacy outcomes.

Pediatric Subjects (1 year to 12 years of age)

One double-blind placebo-controlled treatment trial was conducted in pediatric subjects aged 1 year to 12 years (median age 5 years) who had fever (at least 100ºF) plus one respiratory symptom (cough or coryza) when influenza virus was known to be circulating in the community. Of 698 subjects enrolled in this trial, 452 (65%) were influenza-infected (50% male; 68% Caucasian). Of the 452 influenza-infected subjects, 67% were infected with influenza A and 33% with influenza B.

Efficacy in this trial was determined by the time to alleviation or resolution of influenza signs and symptoms, measured by a composite endpoint that required the following four individual conditions be met: i) alleviation of cough, ii) alleviation of coryza, iii) resolution of fever, and iv) parental opinion of a return to normal health and activity. Oseltamivir phosphate treatment of 2 mg per kg twice daily, started within 48 hours of onset of symptoms, reduced the total composite time to freedom from illness by 1.5 days compared to placebo. Subgroup analyses by gender showed no differences in the treatment effect of oseltamivir phosphate in male and female pediatric subjects.

Pediatric Subjects (2 weeks to less than 1 year of age)

Two open-label trials evaluated the safety and pharmacokinetics of oseltamivir and oseltamivir carboxylate in influenza-infected pediatric subjects 2 weeks to less than 1 year of age (including premature infants at least 36 weeks post conceptional age). Subjects received oseltamivir phosphate at doses ranging from 2 to 3.5 mg per kg twice daily for 5 days depending on subject age. These clinical trials were not designed to evaluate clinical efficacy or virologic response.

Of the 136 subjects under the age of 1 year enrolled and dosed in the trials, the majority of the subjects were male (55%), white (79%), non-Hispanic (74%), full term (76%) and infected with influenza A (80%). Pharmacokinetic data indicated that a dose of 3 mg per kg twice daily in pediatric subjects 2 weeks to less than 1 year of age provided oseltamivir phosphate concentrations similar to or higher than those observed in older pediatric subjects and adults receiving the approved dose and provided the basis for approval [see A dverse Reactions (6.1) and Use in Specific Populations (8.4)].

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